Write short notes on any TWO of the following: (i) Pros and cons of food production through Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) (ii) Implications of depopulation (iii) Role of China in evolving world order

(i) Pros and cons of GMOs in food production

Genetically modified organisms are plants or animals whose DNA has been altered using genetic engineering to introduce desired traits, such as pest resistance or tolerance to herbicides, drought or salinity.

Pros: higher yields and lower losses to pests and disease; reduced use of chemical pesticides in insect-resistant crops such as Bt cotton; crops adapted to drought, heat and salinity — valuable under climate change; improved nutrition, for example vitamin-A-enriched "Golden Rice"; and potentially lower food prices and greater food security for growing populations.

Cons: concerns about long-term health and environmental effects, although major scientific bodies have found approved GM foods to be as safe as conventional ones; risk of gene flow to wild relatives and loss of biodiversity; development of resistant pests and "superweeds"; corporate control of seeds through patents, which can make farmers dependent on a few multinational companies and raise costs; and public distrust and trade restrictions in some markets.

Pakistan: Bt cotton has been widely grown since its formal approval around 2010, though the spread of unapproved and substandard seed reduced its benefits. A strong biosafety regulatory system, local research and farmer protection are needed to use GM technology safely.

(ii) Implications of depopulation

Depopulation is a sustained decline in a country's population, driven mainly by fertility below the replacement level of about 2.1 children per woman, ageing and emigration. Japan, South Korea, Italy, much of Eastern Europe and, since 2022, China have begun to shrink; South Korea's fertility rate is among the lowest ever recorded.

Economic: a shrinking workforce, labour shortages, slower growth, pressure on pensions and health systems as the old-age dependency ratio rises, and declining domestic demand. Social: loneliness and elder care burdens, empty villages and closing schools, and pressure on families. Strategic: fewer young people for the armed forces and potential loss of global influence. Responses: automation and robotics, raising retirement ages, encouraging women's workforce participation, family-friendly policies (childcare, parental leave, housing support) and managed immigration — often politically sensitive. For labour-exporting countries such as Pakistan, depopulation elsewhere creates opportunities for skilled migration.

(iii) Role of China in the evolving world order

China's rise is the most significant change in the global balance of power since the Cold War. It is the world's second-largest economy, the largest trading nation and manufacturer, and a leader in technologies such as electric vehicles, batteries and solar power.

Institutions and initiatives: the Belt and Road Initiative (2013) finances infrastructure across Asia, Africa and beyond; the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (2016) and the BRICS New Development Bank offer alternatives to Western-led finance; China plays a leading role in the SCO and BRICS; and it has launched the Global Development, Global Security and Global Civilization Initiatives. Diplomacy: it brokered the restoration of Saudi–Iran relations in March 2023 and promotes a "multipolar" world.

Debate: supporters see China as a provider of development finance and a voice for the Global South; critics point to debt concerns, assertiveness in the South China Sea, trade imbalances and human-rights issues. US–China rivalry in trade, technology and security is shaping alliances worldwide. For Pakistan, China is an "all-weather" partner through CPEC, but Pakistan must balance this with relations with the West and the Gulf.